Abstract

The purpose of this study was to find out the relationship among permissive parenting, self-regulation and risk-taking behavior among adolescents. Parents displaying a permissive parenting style often let their adolescents choose what to do. Due to the lack of boundaries and rules set under permissive parenting, adolescents may view their parents as more of a friend or an equal rather than a person of authority and this leads to poor self-regulation abilities among adolescents. A stratified random sampling technique was used in this study. 180 College students from the public and private colleges of Toba Tek Singh between the age range 12-18 were included in the study. PAQ developed by Buri (1991), ASRI developed by K.L (2007) Moilanen and RTSHIA by Vrouva (2010) were used. The Pearson correlation coefficient and regression analysis were used to examine correlation and the predictive relationship among the variables under investigation.

Key Words

Adolescents, Permissive Parenting, Risk-Taking Behaviour, Self-regulation

Introduction

Young adults or adolescents may participate in dangerous conduct. Some risk-taking habits, include smoking, abusing drugs or alcohol, engaging in risqué sex or unprotected sex, and problematic. Self-regulating behaviours are those that are generated by oneself, planned, and continuously modified to fulfil personal goals. These alterations are necessary because external, internal, and individual factors change continuously because of growth and performance (Zimmerman, 2000).

Parenting Styles and Permissive Parenting

A parenting style is a set of behaviours that parents use to raise their kids (Farid et al., 2022). Parenting styles can be categorized into two categories: demanding and responsive. According to (Tahir and Jabeen, 2022), a permissive parenting style involves parents who are less demanding and more receptive. 

 In Baumrind's parenting style theory (1971) and Walberg's educational productivity theory. According to these views, parents often use one of three main processes to socialize with their children. This theory holds that children raised by authoritarian parents who are very demanding and responsive to their needs are more likely to have high self-esteem and academic aspirations. Children raised under authoritarian and permissive parenting styles, on the other hand, are more likely to have a poor knowledge of certain phenomena and to do badly in school (Asif et al., 2021). Authoritative parenting styles predict higher academic and intrinsic motivation, however permissive and authoritarian parenting styles do not influence autonomic and intrinsic motivation (Hussain, Muhiuddin & Oad, 2021). 

Furthermore, parenting styles impact the personalities of children as well as parents, with behavioural regulation and acceptance being two significant ways. Overseeing your children's conduct is an example of authoritarian parenting. Permissive parenting, on the other hand, focuses on pleasant, nonpunitive conduct toward children, which leads to increased emotional intelligence. However, research has shown that permissive parenting can lead to undesirable effects such as self-criticism and antisocial conduct (Shahzadi et al., 2023). 

Self-Regulation

Relationships, moral and pro-social conduct, well-being, learning, academic performance, good health, and overall life achievement are all impacted by self-regulation (Chu et al., 2020). Self-regulation may be described as any achievement that an individual makes for himself to influence the likelihood of future repercussions (Noor et al., 2023). According to Schunk and Usher (2011), self-regulation is a cycle which entails establishing targets, measuring general outcomes, making accommodations, and assessing results in order to advance individual intent. The cycle is broken down 




into three stages (Zimmerman, 2000). 

 The ability to manage one's physiological responses to stimuli is referred to as self-regulation in this original notion (Hofmann et al., 2012). Strong self-regulation has been shown to have several benefits for adjustment during adolescence; however, little is known about how much it develops during this time or the factors that influence these changes. Parental support from regulators is characterized by actions like providing assistance, being alert, establishing boundaries, and disciplining kids consistently. These tactics may help children develop a capacity for self-regulation by teaching them how to handle unpleasant emotions, which may hamper their capacity to self-regulate their state of mind or actions (Moilanen et al., 2018). 

Risk Taking

Studies of latent growth from middle childhood through early adolescence, as well as research on the general pattern of maternal and parental acceptance and comfort predicting initial levels yet not subsequent changes in controllable impulsivity, and overall self-control (Ng-Knight et al., 2016), have revealed this general trend (Crossley & Buckner, 2012; Finkenauer et al., 2005). There is disagreement on the appropriate definition of risky behaviours, despite the serious long-term consequences of these actions. The notion of risky behaviour varies greatly among individuals and cultures, as do the opportunities to partake in particular activities (people in Muslim countries, for instance, could be less likely to use alcohol) (Duell et al., 2018). Risk-taking tendencies vary by age throughout the world (Jeffery, 1989; Roth et al., 2018). 

Teens and young adults consume alcohol to get "highs" or to cope with negative emotions (such as anxiety, despair, inferiority complex, negative self-image, and a sense of powerlessness). According to numerous studies, teens drink alcohol in an effort to blend in and get their peers' approval (Stolle et al., 2009). This study investigates the impact of permissive parenting on self-regulation and risk-taking behaviour among adolescents. The aim of this research is to examine the potential impact of parental responsiveness and decreased expectations on the development of teenagers' risk-taking and self-regulation skills.  

Literature Review

Parenting practices create a variety of social settings that are said to help understand how adolescents develop morally and socially (Baharudin & Keshavarz, 2009). Numerous studies have demonstrated the connection between parenting practices and children's moral development as well as their psychological connections (Estavez et al., 2005). (Barlow, 2002) stated that young people's reckless behaviour and lack of self-control have been issues for many nations. For adult Pakistanis, the situation is the same. In children, behavioural issues and a lack of moral development have been linked to moral devaluation. Parenting styles include two basic terms of behaviour, as noted by (Baumrind, 1971). Control and response are these. Together with neglectful styles, these two behavioural components create authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive styles. A permissive parenting style is when parents lavish their kids with additional affection with no conditions (Imran, et al., 2023). 

Baumrind's assessment from 1971 states that parents show acceptance, non-punitive, as responsive behaviour in addition to responding to their children's needs and preferences. Hoeve et al., (2009) found that children reared in a permissive parental setting have poor levels of self-control and high levels of reactivity. Permissive parenting, a liberal parenting style, allows children greater autonomy in making decisions (Gfroerer et al., 2004). According to Steinberg et al. (2013), irresponsible parents ignore and treat their kids as if they don't exist. Parents who are negligent show a lack of interest in and control over their children by ignoring their needs (Suldo & Huebner, 2004). Careless parents demonstrate less regard and concern for their kids (Kim & Rohner, 2002). (Alegre, 2011) asserts that aloof and undemanding parenting is neglectful parenting. They don't put restrictions or boundaries on them. Parents who are negligent ignore the thoughts, feelings, and decisions of their kids. Given this fact, most countries' current family assistance policies offer parental education programs to parents of teenagers (Lorence et al., 2019). Adolescent normative shifts have been linked to a rise in the perception of one's own maladjustment during this developmental phase (Phulpoto, Oad, & Imran, 2024). 

Abad et al., (2002) found that externalizing 

problems like substance misuse, delinquency, aggression, and rule-breaking are on the rise, while Hamza et al., (2011) and Bouma et al., (2008) noted an increase in interior problems such as social disengagement, anxiety, and depression. It has been discovered that there are differences in the patterns of prevalence of specific illnesses between men and women. Studies on adolescents have also focused a great deal of attention on the co-occurrence, or the simultaneous existence of both externalizing and internalizing difficulties (Kim et al., 2003; Reitz et al., 2005). (Piotrowski et al., 2013) discovered a high correlation between child self-regulation and parenting style. According to Crossley and Buckner (2012), mothers who have poor mental health are more likely to engage in unfavourable parenting techniques, which in turn has an adverse impact on their kids' capacity for self-control. On the other hand, lower levels of self-regulation were linked to negative control, which includes coercive behaviours, critical remarks, and power-assertive actions (Karreman et al., 2006).

According to (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2006), there is a correlation between the likelihood of early delinquent behaviour and having a parent who is uninvolved or indulgent with their parenting style. Youngsters who have permissive parents are more prone to experiment with drugs or alcohol and take risks in their sexual lives (Adalbjarnardottir & Hafsteinsson, 2001; Huebner & Well, 2003; Patock-Peckham & Morgan Lopez, 2006). In contrast to the guiding parenting style, the permissive parenting style increases impulsivity, reduces self-control, and increases children's alcohol use and alcohol-related disorders (Patock-Peckham, & Morgan-Lopez, 2006).

Research Methodology

Research Design and Sampling Technique

The current study was conducted using a correlational research design. Stratified random sampling techniques were used.




Population

The current study involves 180 volunteer college students from a variety of Toba Tek Singh colleges. Additionally, data and a sample of the current study were split into two groups of 90 female and 90 male students. Study participants' ages ranged from 12-18 and those participants who fully met the criteria of study were included in this study. 




Inclusion Exclusion Criteria

The study's participants must be adolescents so adolescents typically within the range of 12 to 18 years were included in this study. The participants who have experienced permissive parenting, as determined by validated parenting style assessment tools.

Participants and their legal guardians provided informed consent to take part in this study. Participants who have the ability to understand and respond in the language of study (e.g., English) are included in this study. The participants of this study were chosen from diverse socioeconomic statuses. Participants who fall outside the defined age range were excluded from the study.




Measures Tools

Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ)

PAQ which is a 30-item self-report measure is used to assess the authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting style, it subscale for permissive parenting style which is a 10-item self-report measure was used to assess the permissive parenting of children's parents. (Dr. John R Buri, 1991). Diana Baumrind's hypothesis of parenting styles has a test-retest reliability of .86, which serves as the foundation for the PAQ. (Buri, Dr. John R., 1991).




Adolescents Self-Regulation Inventory (ASRI)

The ASRI was created by Moilanen in 2007. A 36-item questionnaire is used to evaluate teens' abilities to interact, recognize, maintain, suppress, and alter their emotions, attitudes, interests, and behaviours. Adolescent Self-Regulatory Inventory: a total of 27 new items, including 11 items for both short- and long-term self-regulation. Values for internal consistency were obtained using Cronbach's alpha .72 in terms of long-term self-control and .84 in terms of short-term self-control.




Risk-Taking and Self-harm Inventory for Adolescents (RTSHIA) 

RTSHIA; Vrouva et al., 2010 is a tool that allows adolescents in both community and clinical settings to self-report their risk-taking (RT) and self-harm (SH) activities. The original version of this metric consists of 34 components. The 12 RT-related topics included everything from risky behaviours like smoking cigarettes to more serious RT like taking part in gang violence and putting oneself in danger of sexual assault. The self-harming actions listed in the 22-SH-related items are intentional and are graded based on severity. The test-retest reliability of RT and SH for this was .90 and .87, respectively, according to Vrouva et al., (2010).




Procedure

The study's concept was initially accepted by the psychology department's research board, then by the Board of Studies (BOS) and the Board of Advance Study and Research (BASR), who all gave their approval and gave the author permission to continue working on the project. The present investigation was carried out in a way that guaranteed the respect and dignity of the participants. The participants received an explanation of the study's purpose and confidentiality guidelines. The heads and supervisors of every college from which data was gathered received copies of all the records and assessments related to the current investigation. Random selection was used to choose study participants from among the student body. The individual data form was given to the members who expressed interest in having individual data collected and safe individual statistics data counted. The examination of the members was based on these statistics. A deliberate sampling strategy will be used to select students from different universities in Faisalabad. Ethical principles require that participants be informed about the purpose and relevant information of the study to obtain their informed consent. This step would be put into place to ensure that participation is voluntary. Every participant would receive a specific set of study questions. They would advise providing an honest response to every query. Gathering information from each participant will take between forty and forty-five minutes on average. After data collection, participants, and specialists from affiliated academic establishments. The results were computed using the Statistical Programme for Social Sciences (SPSS, V 23). 

Results

The results and conversation present the data that

was collected from the adolescents enrolled in different private and public institutions in Division Toba Tek Singh using different questionnaires to assess their levels of risk-taking behaviours, self-regulation, and permissive parenting. To determine the results and validate the hypotheses, independent sample t-tests, Pearson correlation, and linear regression analysis were used.

Table 1

Variables	Categories	N	%
Gender	Male	90	50
	Female	90	50
Socioeconomic Status	Lower	7	3.9
	Middle	166	92.2
	Upper	7	3.9
Family system	Joint	88	48.89
	Nuclear	92	51.11
Age	15-17	125	69.4
	18-19	55	30.6

Table 2

Variables	N	Mean	S. D	Skewness	Kurtosis
PAQ	180	33.09	6.561	-.288	-1.172
ASRI	180	115.97	14.315	-.567	.401
RTSHIA	180	81.00	8.836	-.584	-.808

Table 3

Variables	No. of Items	Alpha Coefficient
Permissive Authority Questionnaire	10	.70
Adolescents Self-Regulation Inventory	36	.78
Risk-taking and self-harm Inventory for adolescents	34	.80

 Hypothesis No 1: There would be a significant relationship between permissive parenting authority, and self-regulation among adolescents.

Table 4

Variables	N	M	SD	1	2
PAQ	180	33.09	6.561	_	_
ASRI	180	115.97	14.315	.454**	_

 The correlation coefficient (r) value between PAQ and ASRI is 0.454 which shows a positive correlation between both variables. The P value is < 0.05 which means the relationship is statistically significant.
Hypothesis No 2: There would be a significant relationship between permissive parenting, and risk-taking behaviour among adolescents.

Table 5

Variables	N	M	SD	1	2
PAQ	180	33.09	6.561	_	_
RTSHIA	180	80.00	8.83	.000	_

 The correlation coefficient (r) value between PAQ and RTSHIA is 0.000 which shows no correlation between both variables. The P value is > 0.05 which means the relationship is statistically not significant.
Hypothesis No 3: Permissive parenting style would be a predictor of self-regulation among adolescents.

Table 6

	Unstandardized Coefficients		Standardized Coefficients
Model	B	Std. Error	B	R2	df(F)	Sig.
(Constant)	83.196	4.915				.000
Total of PAQ	.990	.146	.454	.206	1(46.187)	.000

 The table shows that the R-square value is 0.206, which means that our independent variable i.e. PAQ causes a 20.4% change in the dependent variable i.e. ASRI. The P value is 0.000 which is less than 0.05, and the beta value is 0.454 which means significant 
relationship between variables.
Hypothesis No 4: Permissive parenting behaviour would be a predictor of risk-taking behaviour among adolescents. 

Table 7

	Unstandardized Coefficients		Standardized Coefficients
Model	B	Std. Error	B	R2	df(F)	Sig.
(Constant)	81.021	3.405				.000
Total of PAQ	-.001	.101	.000	-.006	1(0.000)	.995

 The table shows that the R-square value is -0.006, which means that our independent variable i.e. PAQ causes a -0.6% change in the dependent variable i.e. ASRI 
which is negative. The P value is 0.995 which is greater than 0.05, and the beta value is 0.000 which 




means no significant relationship between variables.
Hypothesis No 5: There would be a significant 
difference between permissive parenting, self-regulation and risk-taking behaviour among male and female adolescents. 

Table 8

Variables	Male (n=90)		Female (n=90)		t	p	Cohen’s d
	M	SD	M	SD
PAQ	32.711	6.0971	33.467	7.0075	-.772	.009	.9791
ASRI	114.378	14.4895	117.556	14.0394	-1.494	.333	2.1267
RTSHIA	73.82	5.964	88.18	4.156	-18.736	.000	.766

 The table elaborates that is significant gender difference exists on the variable of PAQ   with an M value of 32.711, SD is 6.0971 for males while (M is 33.467, SD is 7.0075 and p-value is .009) for females. On the other variable, ASRI is partially significant because gender difference exists with an M value of 114.378, SD is 14.4895 for males while the p-value is .333, on females the M value is 117.556, SD is 13.0394 while p-value is .333. Further results elaborate that on the variable of RTSHIA, non-significant gender difference exists with an M value of 73.82, SD is 5.964 on males with a p-value of .000 while on the males the M value is 88.18, SD is 4.156 and p-value is. 000 on females.

Discussion

This study tackles a vital area of research with practical implications for parenting interventions and adolescent well-being. This research aims to contribute to the existing knowledge base, shedding light on the dynamics that shape the delicate balance between parental influence, individual autonomy, and the propensity for engaging in risky behaviours during this critical stage of life. The study examines the relationships between three distinct factors risk-taking behavior, self-regulation, and permissive parenting and how these variables affect each other. 

According to Hypothesis 1, the hypothesis shows a significant relationship between permissive parenting and self-regulation. The development of hazardous health behaviors in adolescents as well as their overall development can be influenced by a variety of factors related to the adolescent-parent connection. Researchers have observed that the correlations between parenting styles and risky behaviours in adolescents vary based on whether parents or adolescents rate the parenting style. This suggests that it is crucial to consider the reports from both parents and adolescents (Cohen & Rice, 1997; Chassin et al., (2005)). A different study (Cohen & Rice, 1997) found that children's perceptions of less control and higher openness were linked to smoking and drinking among a group of eighth and ninth-grade students, but there was no association between parental views on their approach to parenting and youngster alcohol or tobacco use. Teenagers' assessments of their parents' protective and loving actions and their own were found to have correlations ranging from .40 to .46 in a study (Clausen, 1996). Significant gender disparities have been noted by other research in the strength of the associations between parenting styles and teenage drug use (Patock-Peckham, et al., 2001).

According to Hypothesis 2, the hypothesis shows a significant relationship between permissive parenting and risk-taking behaviour. Numerous research projects have examined individual variances in risk-taking inclination and personality. In particular, higher agreeableness and conscientiousness have been associated with reduced risk-taking, while extraversion and openness (Nicholson et al., 2005; Laurencia & Levin, 2001; Nicholson et al., 2005) have been associated with higher risk-taking. More recently, it has been suggested that taking risks is more likely when self-regulatory control is weak and that a specific individual variability variable, self-regulatory competence, enhances the degree of risk-taking propensity (Byrnes, 1998; Steinberg, 2004, 2005). 

According to Hypothesis 3, the hypothesis results show that permissive parenting behaviour is a strong predictor of self-regulation among adolescents. According to Jabeen, Anis-ul-Haque, and Riaz (2013), both mother as well as paternal authoritative parenting styles have a large, good impact on adolescents' ability to regulate their emotions, while permissive parenting styles have a considerable detrimental impact.  A follow-up study (Crossley & Buckner, 2012) discovered a relationship between parenting styles, child self-regulation, and maternal mental health. According to Crossley and Buckner, (2012), mothers who have poor mental health are more likely to engage in unfavourable parenting techniques, which in turn has an adverse impact on their kids' capacity for self-control. Hypothesis 4, shows that permissive parenting behaviour is not a good predictor of risk-taking behaviour among adolescents. The correlation between risky sexual behaviour and a permissive parenting style also validates earlier research linking parental control or lack thereof with deviant conduct (Montgomery et al., 2008). While parenting variables were linked to the outcomes of adolescents, the adolescent's self-reported characteristics had a stronger correlation with substance use and risky sexual conduct, respectively. An intriguing discovery was the inverse relationship between teenage risky sexual conduct and parents who internalize psychopathology. It has been demonstrated that higher levels of control or demanding behaviour and lower levels of warmth are linked to higher levels of parent internalizing psychosis and reduce the chance of risky conduct in adolescence (Montgomery et al., 2008).

In the current study, risk participation was also evaluated by self-report reactions to hypothetical and real-world behaviours. While this might be seen as a constraint on the study's conclusions, there is data that suggests participants generally provide truthful responses. Saliva samples taken from schoolchildren were found to have a strong correlation with their reported smoking behaviours in a previous edition of the Unabridged Smoking as well as Drinking Survey (Fuller, 2005) (Goddard & Higgins, 1999. According to Hypothesis 5, the hypothesis result shows that there is a significant difference among adolescents (male and female) on variables including permissive parenting, self-regulation, and risk-taking behaviour. These results corroborate previous studies (Brown et al., 1997; Heather et al., 1993) that discovered a particularly high correlation between problematic alcohol consumption and lower levels of self-regulation and perceived control over drinking. These two variables belong to the category of psychological adjustment variables that are highly related to alcohol use problems, which is consistent with numerous findings from our lab (e.g., Camatta and Nagoshi, 1995; Hutchinson et al., 1998; Wood et al., 1992) and others (Chassin et al., 1991; Dawes et al., 1997; Sher et al., 1991). These factors have a far lower correlation with alcohol use overall. Research has shown that at least when it comes to college students, social norms or facilitation factors have a greater influence on alcohol consumption (Wood et al., 1992). It is thought that those who feel they have less control over their drinking or who have weaker self-regulatory systems use alcohol as a kind of self-medication to compensate for various psychological maladjustments (Hutchinson et al., 1998; Room and Leigh, 1992).

Conclusion

After finding the results, it is concluded that there is a significant correlation between variables of permissive parenting, and self-regulation. The further conclusion shows that there is a significant difference found among male and female adolescents because of variables permissive parenting, and self-regulation, and there is a non-significant gender difference in the variable risk-taking behaviour with both genders.  

Recommendations

Researchers can conduct longitudinal studies to understand the long-term impact of permissive parenting on self-regulation and risk-taking behaviour among adolescents in future. Moreover, Researchers can explore how cultural factor influences adolescents' self-regulation abilities and risk-taking behaviour. Researchers must conduct qualitative studies based on both the mother and father's interviews in the upcoming time. Future studies must acknowledge and discuss the impact of peers on adolescents' involvement in risk-taking behaviour and less control over impulses due to lower self-regulation abilities. Psychologists working with children must seek help to understand the root causes of adolescent involvement in risky and harmful behaviour.

Limitations

It might be challenging to generalize the results to a broader population, considering the diversity in parenting styles and cultural norms. This research is cross-sectional, which limits the ability to establish causality. Longitudinal studies would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamic relationships over time, but such designs might be impractical due to resource constraints. Adolescent's behaviour is influenced by various external factors, such as peer relationships, school environment, and media exposure.

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